ISSN: 2955-8018 (Print) ISSN: 2810-899X (Online) The Security and Land Power Journal, founded in 2022, publishes research articles - unpublished and original - related to Security, Defense, and the Military Profession, which are reviewed by external peers who have previously published similar research. Through the double-blind system, the evaluations are carried out anonymously and focus on the quality and validity of the arguments expressed in the articles. The journal has two sections: (1) Main Section (focused on the four areas of study of CEEEP or a central theme selected for an edition of the journal), and (2) Miscellaneous (focused on additional content -such as comments and book review- or on topics related to Security and Defense in case the Main Section has focused on a different topic). The periodicity of the Security and Land Power Journal is quarterly, being published - both in its physical format and in its digital version- during the first month of the corresponding period. In this sense, the first period of publication of the journal runs from January to March, the second from April to June, the third from July to September, and the fourth from October to December. If you wish to publish in the Security and Land Power Journal, review our calls, the editorial process, and the rules for authors.
Centro de Estudios Estratégicos del Ejército del Perú
Analysis of the Armed Forces' Participation in Peru's Sustainable Development
This article examines the participation of the Peruvian Armed Forces in the promotion of sustainable development from a multidimensional perspective. Through a documentary analysis, it studies the institutional contributions in the economic, social, environmental and political dimensions, within the framework of national security and defense. It is argued that the Armed Forces, in addition to their traditional role in the defense of sovereignty, have the capacity to actively intervene in development processes through multisectoral actions that strengthen governance, national resilience and territorial cohesion. In this context, the normative, institutional and operational mechanisms that allow them to articulate their actions with the strategic objectives of the State are identified. The study concludes that, with adequate planning and inter-institutional coordination, the Armed Forces can play a key role in achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), especially in vulnerable and hard-to-reach areas.
Copyright (c) 2025 Security and Land Power Journal https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Three Years of War in Ukraine and the Changing Character of Warfare
This article examines the transformations that the war in Ukraine has introduced into the character of contemporary armed conflict, especially since the massive use of Unmanned Aerial Systems (UAS), the development of emerging technologies, the decentralization of tactical leadership, and the need to mobilize the population as part of a whole-nation strategy. It also analyzes the impact of these innovations on military doctrine, command and NCO training, strategic logistics and preparedness for large-scale combat scenarios. Through a comparative and descriptive perspective, key lessons for institutional adaptation in the face of a constantly changing operational environment are identified.
21st Century Geopolitics and Peru in the New World Order
This article examines the contemporary meaning of geopolitics in the context of world reordering and Peru's position in the new power scenarios. Through an interpretative and strategic qualitative methodology, it analyzes specialized sources and comparative regional doctrines, with the aim of understanding the factors that influence the articulation of national power. The purpose is to contribute to the formulation of a national strategy that will allow Peru to face the challenges of the international environment with autonomy and long-term vision. It highlights the urgency of a modern geopolitical doctrine that integrates security, defense, development, education, productive infrastructure and strategic leadership. It also addresses transnational threats, regional dynamics in Latin America and the influence of global powers on the international system. The research proposes to reposition Peru as a geostrategic node in South America, combining logistical development, institutional strengthening, professionalization of the Armed Forces and an educational policy aligned with national interests. This analysis offers guidelines to build a prospective national geopolitical vision, multisectoral and coherent with the permanent interests of the State in a complex and competitive global environment.
Informality, Corruption and Impunity as Structural Threats to Peru's National Security
This study analyzes how informality, corruption and impunity, deeply rooted in Peru's political and social culture, constitute structural threats that undermine national security, weaken democratic institutions and put the country's development at risk. Through a qualitative approach and the critical analysis of specialized literature, official sources and journalistic reports, we identify the systemic interconnections between these three corrosive forces and their cross-cutting impact on the economy, governance, citizen cohesion and the national security and defense system. It is argued that these dynamics favor the expansion of illegal economies, weaken the citizen's link with the State and erode democratic sustainability. The main objective is to contribute to the formulation of multisectoral reforms that restore and strengthen the constitutional order, promote a culture of legality and consolidate a national project based on shared civic values and inalienable principles. It also highlights the role of the Armed Forces (Armed Forces) as institutions that shape values, discipline and national cohesion in the face of a society affected by state fragmentation and the weakening of civic commitment.
Mining, National Security and Governance: Strategic Threats and Risks in the Southern Peruvian Mining Corridor
This article analyzes the threats and risks faced by Peru due to the expansion of illegal mining in the Southern Mining Corridor, evaluating its impact on national security, internal order and democratic governance. Its objective is to identify, evaluate and propose comprehensive alternatives to this complex phenomenon, which intertwines criminal economics, ideological radicalism, regulatory gaps and territorial capture by criminal organizations. The purpose is to contribute to the design of a National Mining Security Strategy aimed at protecting the strategic interests of the State and promoting sustainable, legal and sovereign development. The methodology used combines the review of official documents, specialized studies, journalistic reports and experiences in areas of high conflict, where recurrent patterns of institutional capture and collapse of the rule of law are evident. Based on this analysis, viable proposals are presented from an articulated approach to security, legality and national development.
The Role of Global Powers in the Palestinian-Israeli Armed Conflict
The decisions adopted by international actors have had a determining influence on the configuration and persistence of various armed conflicts. In this context, this article analyzes the role played by the main global powers in the Palestinian-Israeli conflict, with emphasis on their geostrategic, economic and diplomatic interests. The study employs a systematic literature review, based on official sources and specialized literature. The findings show that the United States (US), Russia and China have implemented policies aimed at defending their own interests, which, far from contributing to a peaceful solution, have intensified and prolonged the confrontation. This dynamic highlights the dissonance between the diplomatic discourse of the powers and their actions on the ground, which hinders the achievement of a lasting peace in the Middle East region.
Exo-criminality of risk: An emerging challenge to the security of states and democratic stability
This study examines the emergence of Exo-Criminality of Risk (ECR) as a criminal variant that differs from traditional organized crime by originating from external factors, such as migratory dynamics, social crises and other exogenous pressures, rather than from strategic planning by a criminal leadership. The research highlights that the ECR is characterized by a remarkable adaptability and operational flexibility, allowing its rapid integration into diverse local criminal ecosystems and modifying conventional patterns of criminal affiliation. Based on rigorous fieldwork, ethnographic analysis and academic review, the paper identifies two models of criminal expansion: strategic Transnational Organized Crime (TOC) and ECR, the latter driven by external social and opportunity factors. It also emphasizes the need to adapt state responses through police and judicial strategies and internationally coordinated public policies to effectively counter the threat posed by this emerging phenomenon.
Towards the conquest of space: Challenges and perspectives of the Argentine Aerospace Police
The article analyzes Argentine aerospace policy, examining its evolution and challenges in the context of the growing relevance of outer space. It reviews the international regulatory framework, highlighting the 1967 Space Treaty, and explores the implications of competition between space powers such as the United States (US) and China. The study makes a historical review of Argentine aerospace policies, from the allocation of orbital positions to the creation of Empresa Argentina de Soluciones Satelitales S.A. (ARSAT), highlighting the importance of technological autonomy and international cooperation for the development of the sector. It is argued that aerospace activity represents a crucial instrument to strengthen the country’s defense, national security and power projection. Keywords: Argentine aerospace policy, outer space, sovereignty, ARSAT, CONAE, Argentine Aerospace Agency (CONAE)
Generative Artificial Intelligence: A Prospective Analysis of its Implications for Security and Defense
Humanity is currently experiencing the so-called Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR), which represents a profound break with the past. While previous revolutions were manifested in intellectual, economic, technological and, in some cases, political and social fields, this new stage is distinguished by the accelerated, exponential and convergent deployment of disruptive technologies. The first 25 years of the 21st century have seen what Fareed Zakaria calls “the age of revolutions,” characterized by profound transformations in politics, culture, identity and geopolitics, driven by a digital environment that has duplicated the advances of the past 250 years. It is essential to understand the physical and psychological effects of these changes, which generate both positive and negative consequences for society. Among the most relevant innovations are generative artificial intelligence (GAI) and quantum computing, which constitute, on the one hand, an existential challenge and, on the other, an opportunity for progress in various fields of knowledge. In particular, AGI stands as a key element in the military and strategic domain, transforming decision making and conflict management, while introducing unprecedented risks in terms of cybersecurity, disinformation and the arms race. The lack of balance between technological progress and human oversight could seriously affect global stability. Finally, this article analyzes AGI from a prospective perspective, assessing the threats, challenges and opportunities it poses in the field of security and defense, both in the present and in the near future.
Generative artificial intelligence (GAI)
Geopolitical Prospects in Syria After the Fall of Bashar al-Assad
The collapse of the Bashar al-Assad regime in December 2024 marked a turning point in Syria’s geopolitical landscape. The fall of the Baathist government generated a power vacuum that led to a strategic reconfiguration of the country, with national and international actors vying for influence. This article analyzes the military and political dynamics following Assad’s departure, with an emphasis on territorial fragmentation, the activity of insurgent groups such as Hay’at Tahrir al-Sham and the Tiger Forces, as well as the role of powers such as Russia, the United States (US), Iran and Turkey. In addition, it examines the political, military and economic challenges of the transitional government, the impact of Assad’s exile in Moscow and the possibility of Syria being divided into zones of control under different spheres of influence. From this context, possible future scenarios and their implications for regional and global stability are assessed.
La Rinconada: Zone of Threats and Challenges to National Security
This article comprehensively analyzes the threats to national security in La Rinconada, Puno, focusing on organized crime, informal and illegal mining, environmental contamination and the public health crisis. In this region, various criminal organizations operate, dedicated to gold trafficking, smuggling and transnational crime, consolidating criminal structures with access to weapons and illicit financing. Their territorial control, based on violence and corruption, not only weakens state authority, but also exploits mine workers and monopolizes the illegal trade in inputs. Moreover, its actions sustain a parallel clandestine economy that finances illicit activities at the national and international levels. In this context, the objective is to understand how the lack of state intervention and the interests of certain groups have allowed this region to become a nucleus of illicit activities that compromise the stability and development of the country. In order to address this problem, it is essential to make the political class, institutions and society as a whole aware of the urgency of generating and implementing a comprehensive national security strategy. This should be capable of dismantling criminal networks and eliminating the links of certain actors with illegal mining, which would allow for a sustainable economic, social and environmental recovery. The methodology employed is based on a qualitative research analysis of phenomenological character that includes visits and interviews in the area, as well as the review of socioeconomic and environmental studies with national and international sources. This leads to the main conclusion that, without comprehensive and sustained state intervention, La Rinconada will consolidate as a stronghold of Transnational Organized Crime (TOC), with direct repercussions on national security and governance of the country. Consequently, to avoid this scenario, it is imperative to articulate a strategy that combines security measures, mining formalization and socioeconomic development, ensuring the effective presence of the State and the eradication of the criminal structures that currently dominate the region.
The Armed Forces in the control of internal order and in support of the Peruvian National Police for its reestablishment
The increase of social conflict in Peru has prompted political decisions on the possible participation of the Armed Forces (Armed Forces), particularly the Peruvian Army (EP), in complex scenarios. It should be noted that there is a legal framework, Legislative Decree Nº 1095, which regulates such intervention through the declaration of a State of Emergency. However, regulatory gaps are identified related to the nature of the support to the National Police of Peru (PNP) and the specific tasks performed during the Emergency Regime contemplated in Article 137 of the Political Constitution of Peru (CPP). In this context, a theoretical review of the intervention of the Armed Forces in the control and reestablishment of internal order is carried out, based on a legal and conceptual analysis of current regulations. Likewise, key differences are established between Critical National Assets (CNA), strategic facilities, essential resources and Essential Public Services (SSPPEE), with the aim of proposing alternatives for a more effective participation in scenarios that could be recurrent. The proposal seeks to guarantee inter-institutional coordination between the Armed Forces, the PNP and other entities, optimizing military capabilities such as logistics, protection and technical support to face exceptional situations.
Ideological Radicalization, Organized Crime and National Security: The Intervention of the Armed Forces
This article analyzes the impact of ideological radicalization and its convergence with Transnational Organized Crime (TOC) on national security in Peru. Through a descriptive and analytical methodology, it examines the areas most affected by these phenomena, assessing how radical groups and organized crime affect governance and compromise state control over key territories. It concludes that this convergence increases threats to internal security, requiring strategic intervention by the state. Although internal security is primarily a police task, the intervention of the Armed Forces (Armed Forces) is essential in situations where the magnitude of the threat exceeds police capabilities. Finally, the need for a comprehensive strategy that combines security efforts with socioeconomic development to mitigate the effects of radicalization, as well as to guarantee and strengthen the country’s long-term stability, especially in the most vulnerable regions, is highlighted.
Copyright (c) 2024 Security and Land Power Journal https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Evolution of Peruvian National Security and Defense in Interaction with the United States
The objective is to analyze the incidence of the relationship between Peru and the United States (U.S.) in National Security and Defense. Peruvian policies in these areas are discussed with the U.S. The methodology used comes from the social sciences, adopting a long-term perspective. It is argued that, in order to develop national interests and objectives, managers and members of the political community must consider the geopolitics of international relations, as well as make an adequate assessment of the presence of hegemonic states and the decision margins that countries with less strategic weight can develop. From an academic perspective, it is important to contribute to timely decision-making through research and exposure to public opinion.
Artificial Intelligence and Cyber Defense
As the digital dimension is becoming more deeply integrated into society, it is also becoming more integrated into military operations, as the advance of various threats and vulnerabilities in cyberspace is identified, which, if not managed, can compromise a country’s critical assets. Given this scenario, the adoption of emerging technologies such as Artificial Intelligence (AI), is presented as a strategic element for national security from the field of cyber defense. This article explores the impact and potential of AI in cyber defense, highlighting its crucial role in protecting digital assets and strengthening military capabilities in an increasingly digitized world. It examines how AI enables task automation and improves cyber threat response, as well as its application in areas such as pattern recognition, decision making and logistics. However, for developing countries to take full advantage of these technologies, it is essential to take a holistic approach that combines the acquisition of advanced tools with appropriate training and experimentation.
Internal Order: Defining the Support of the Armed Forces to the National Police
After a brief description of the concepts of internal order, public order and citizen security, a distinction was made as to their scope, limits, principles and responsible entities. To this end, an exhaustive comparative analysis was made of Legislative Decree 1095, which “establishes rules for the employment and use of force by the Armed Forces in the National Territory, and Legislative Decree 1086, which “regulates the use of force by the National Police of Peru”. The importance of their compliance in the different risk scenarios by both institutions was determined, describing the gradualness and intensity of the use of force in the face of threats in the management of internal order. In this context, gaps and opportunities for improvement were identified with respect to the definition of the support provided by the Armed Forces to the Peruvian National Police (PNP) in the aforementioned management. Finally, recommendations are proposed that include the use of military capabilities to support the process of police operations, revision of regulations, capacity building, among others.
The Peruvian Space Sector in the New Space Disruption: What are the Opportunities and Challenges for Peruvians in the New Space Age?
The dynamics of New Space offer unprecedented opportunities for countries such as Peru, which have limited economic resources and little experience in the space field. Therefore, it is imperative to establish clear objectives in the framework of a short-, medium- and long-term space policy, in order to maximize the benefits of New Space and face its challenges. In this context, these, on the one hand, will guide efforts in different domains, such as space governance, capacity building, knowledge and space industry. On the other hand, they will guide the initial investment needed to give the country visibility in this sector. It is essential that this investment be aligned with the established objectives, as it will be the starting point for Peru’s growth. Likewise, the development of the Peruvian space sector represents a great opportunity for progress in the scientific, technological and economic fields. The implementation of a strategic roadmap, based on five essential pillars, will provide a precise framework for achieving these ambitious goals.
Clausewitz’s War Triad: An Evolving Model for Conflict Analysis
In his book On War, Clausewitz reflects on what has been called the triad, trilogy or trinity of war. The Prussian presents a broader dimension of confrontation than the specifically military and links three elements: reason, will and passion, materialized in politics, the armed forces (the army) and the citizenry. Thus, it establishes a model, a sort of methodology (which is what we intend to rescue) to analyze conflicts. In this sense, to the extent that there is a convergence between the elements (factors) mentioned, it is easier to achieve success, since the absence of fissures or porosity between them reduces risks and vulnerabilities. On the other hand, by placing each of these three elements at one of the vertices of a triangle, they can be related to each other, which makes it possible to analyze the degree of cohesion and its possible reflection in subsequent political-military action, or even in the national deterrence capacity. Finally, from the second half of the 20th century, the emergence first of the United Nations (UN) and later of other international organizations, some dedicated to security and defense, generated a new space in which it was necessary to encompass the “war triad” (of a state nature) in the new international concert. This brought about a change in the methodology of conflict analysis that is still as valuable today as it was when it was first presented, but in a broader, supra-state and globalized context.
The Amazon Cooperation Treaty Organization as a Tool for Combating Transnational Organized Crime from an Environmental Perspective
This article analyzes transnational illicit activities in the Amazon, a space where diverse criminal networks thrive. As a research proposal, it is verified, through descriptive (how) and causal (why) inferences, to what extent the Amazon Cooperation Treaty Organization (ACTO) can become an effective tool to combat them, replacing the Union of South American Nations (UNASUR), which before the suspension of its activities was the appropriate forum for this purpose. To achieve this, research is developed based on the understanding of Richard Haass (2017), who argues that we live in an integrated and interdependent world or, in other words, in a World Order 2.0. In this context, overlapping threats from outside and inside a region or country require coordinated responses to protect the interests of those who, to some extent, are affected by the resulting externalities, as is the case of the Amazon region.
Challenges of Military Intelligence in the Fight Against Terrorism in the Apurimac, Ene and Mantaro River Valleys (VRAEM)
The research examines the challenges faced by military intelligence in combating the terrorist organization operating in the Apurimac, Ene and Mantaro river valleys (VRAEM). First, it describes the evolution of this organization over the last 30 years. Subsequently, a detailed evaluation of the transformation and development of military intelligence in this region is carried out. Furthermore, an exhaustive diagnosis and identification of key variables is carried out by means of the MICMAC Method (Multiplied Cross Impacts Matrix for Classification). In addition, the problems inherent to the military field intelligence system are addressed by providing information to the Commander of the VRAEM Special Command for strategic decision making. This work is crucial for the execution of military operations and actions aimed at combating the terrorist threat, which is aggravated by the presence of other challenges such as Illicit Drug Trafficking (ITD) in the area. The importance of overcoming these challenges to guarantee security and stability in the region is highlighted. In order to face this problem, a qualitative approach was used through an interpretative hermeneutic method, documentary analysis, as well as the contributions and experience of those who have been part of the military intelligence system in the VRAEM. Among the most significant conclusions, we highlight the need for a more dynamic intelligence model such as the one proposed, called “military intelligence with a convergent approach”, which will allow the adoption of effective strategies for the production of valuable and operationally useful information.
Artificial Intelligence and Disinformation: Role in 21st Century Conflicts
Recent conflicts around the world demonstrate that technology is fundamental for the development of war campaigns. The use of state-of-the-art technology is not limited exclusively to traditional International Humanitarian Law (IHL) actors, but is also employed by non-state actors, who challenge the effectiveness of the international legal framework, open the way for illegitimate and illegal actions, and expand the gray zone between peace and war. In this confusing and increasingly dangerous environment, information and disinformation have been used as strategic weapons. These include tactics of deception, means of destabilization, generators of chaos and social division, mechanisms of evasion of responsibility and sanctions, and instruments for the creation of tailor-made realities (post-truth). Therefore, the objective of this paper is to understand the military use of a disruptive technology such as artificial intelligence (AI) and to identify the potential of disinformation and information as strategic tools.
Spain: Deterrent Military Loss to Morocco
Morocco’s latest arms acquisitions turn the possibility of risk into a real threat of attack on the Spanish cities of Ceuta and Melilla. The recent supply of Javelin missiles by the United States (US) to Morocco reduces the deterrent capability of the Spanish Leopard tanks positioned in both cities. In addition to the supply of Javelin missiles, the U.S. has established several factories in the country, giving Morocco some autonomy to resupply the weaponry used. The continuous procurement of short, medium and long range surface-to-air, air-to-ground, air-to-air, anti-tank and anti-ship missiles, together with advanced 3-D radar-based air defense systems, makes the African country one of the best armed on the continent, second only to Algeria.
The “Make in India” Experience to Boost Development and Self-Reliance
In 2014, the government of India launched the “Make in India” initiative in a context of crisis that gradually permeated the sentiments of the Indian citizen, becoming the flagship program of the nation. It provided a sure north and a guiding path to realize its ambitions of regional leadership, growth and security. Moreover, statistics show a favorable and remarkable trend in the region. The change towards the opening of investments, never seen before in the territory, as well as the schemes developed for its better implementation, are part of the details described in this article. It also explains the main strategies to achieve the proposed objectives, the need to be self-sufficient in a scenario of permanent threats and how, through the national and defense industry, part of the national power and potential is consolidated. Finally, the national reality and the current context in which the country lives require assuming clear positions regarding the emergence of this new power and trying to outline ideas and projects to take advantage of and benefit from its growth. It also stresses the importance of always moving forward hand in hand in matters related to development and security.
Social Network Security: Navigating with Cyber Awareness and Solidarity
Social networks have proved to be a powerful tool for communication, citizen participation and the dissemination of relevant information. In the social, political and cultural spheres, they have facilitated the organization of protests, the dissemination of diverse cultural expressions and participation in debates on important issues. For those States and users committed to the efficient use of these platforms in the struggle for timely information, it is advisable to encourage transparency in the dissemination of data, verify the veracity of news before sharing it, promote constructive and respectful dialogue online, and be alert to disinformation and manipulation in these spaces. It is essential that both States and users commit to using social networks in a responsible, ethical and conscious manner, taking advantage of their potential to inform, educate and mobilize society in favor of just and relevant causes.
Transnational Consequences of the Colombia - FARC Peace Process
The Colombian government and the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC) signed a peace agreement in 2016, triggering collateral effects that impacted part of the continent. Specifically, groups that did not participate in the negotiation continued with criminal actions. This situation especially affected neighboring countries and led to a transfer of crime from one territory to another, even establishing alliances with criminal gangs from bordering states. As a result, criminality that was once local became transnational, as the National Liberation Army (ELN), FARC groups and the Gulf Clan migrated to neighboring countries, especially Ecuador. The consequences of this criminal relocation have been reflected in violence that has disrupted governance in the neighboring country.
This article analyzes the success of government intervention in the fight against drugs in the province of Tocache, located in the department of San Martín, during the period from 2003 to 2011, as well as in the so-called Alto Huallaga zone, which includes the Province of Tocache in San Martín, the Province of Leoncio Prado in Huánuco, the Province of Padre Abad in Ucayali and the districts of Cholón and Monzón in Huánuco. In 2013, the Government of Peru (GDP) established the Multisectoral Commission for the Pacification, Social Economic Development of the Huallaga Zone (CODEHUALLAGA), of which the author was technical secretary during the six years of operation. This analysis is based on this experience. The success of the GDP intervention in Alto Huallaga has been recognized by the National Commission for Development and Life without Drugs (DEVIDA), the National Institute of Statistics and Informatics (INEI) and various media, according to the opinions of prominent personalities. During this period, the Upper Huallaga Valley has been remarkably successful. The state focus on eradication, coca crop substitution and development projects in the region have been fundamental to this transformation, as Vargas explained, with a significant reduction in the number of hectares of coca from 12,421 in 2011 to only 1,555 in 2014.
Shocking images recorded on Friday, March 22, 2024 at the Crocus City Hall concert palace near Moscow revealed the presence of jihadist terrorism in Russia, evoking the Chechen wars of the late 20th century and the Kremlin’s continued preoccupation with the region. Chechnya’s history has been shaped by the struggle against religious fundamentalism, with Dudayev and Basayev being prominent protagonists. Despite the efforts of Putin and Kadyrov, fundamentalism has spread both internally and externally, giving rise to the emergence of groups such as the Islamic State of Greater Khorasan, known by its acronym ISIS-K, and generating uncertainty in the post-Soviet space due to persistent conflicts. The evolution of Islamic extremism from Al Qaeda to DAESH and ISIS-K highlights the complexity of these global threats.
Jihadist Terrorism in the Russian Federation
Deportation of Peoples from the Caucasus
Insecurity is What States Make of It: U.S. Securitization of China
The purpose of this article is to investigate and analyze the process of securitization from the United States (US) to China and the dangers it poses to regional security in the Asia Pacific. It is argued that securitization, understood as a process in which a danger is identified and designated as an existential threat to an object of reference that justifies the adoption of extreme measures to protect it, is driving the bilateral relationship between Washington and Beijing towards a direct confrontation. The key to understanding this phenomenon lies in identifying how U.S. security visions (which define the interpretive framework through which perceived dangers are identified and reacted to) shape policies toward China (seen as a threat to the international order) and how these measures are worsening the security dynamics between the two powers. Therefore, the text examines why this attitude is capable of generating an armed conflict with the Asian country: the desire to show firmness reduces the options available to China in response to the growing diplomatic rapprochement of the US with Taiwan, as evidenced by its recent behavior towards the island in 2022 and 2023.
Argentina: Security Challenges and the Government Response
In addition to Argentina’s profound economic crisis, the nation faces serious security challenges. These include use of the country as a drug transit zone, including cocaine from Bolivia and Peru bound for Europe and marijuana from Paraguay. Such criminal activities have caused violent struggles between groups for transport routes in logistics hubs such as Rosario. The country is also challenged by the secondary effects of such drug trafficking, including addition to the cocaine byproduct “paco,” the new synthetic drug “Tussi,” and an increasing fentanyl consumption problem, and criminal insecurity accelerated by rising rates of poverty and unemployment. Argentina also faces potential terrorism threats from Hezbollah Islamic and to a lesser degree, from the indigenous fringe group, the Mapuche Ancestral Resistance (RAM). It is also challenged by the depletion of Argentina’s maritime resources from Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated (IUU) fishing. Security forces also must provide logistics and other support for Argentina’s strategically important Antarctic region, the constitutionally enshrined Argentine claim to the Malvinas/Falkland Islands, and should consider the possible wartime exploitation of Argentine territory through China’s access to dual use space and maritime facilities. In addressing security challenges, the new libertarian government of Javier Milei has appointed an experienced National Security Minister, and a capable Defense Minister. Together, they must compensate for a generation of underfunding of and constraints on the role of the Armed Forces under prior Peronist governments, despite the current budget crisis. In security, as in other matters, the Milei government has moved away from flirtation with the PRC in defense acquisition and other engagements, and is working closely with the United States and other Western allies to acquire new systems and capabilities, and to expand security cooperation.
The Consequences of the Consolidation of the Beijing-Moscow-Tehran Axis
The possible creation of a geopolitical alliance formed by the People’s Republic of China, the Russian Federation and the Islamic Republic of Iran is interpreted by analysts and politicians as a strategic maneuver aimed at counteracting the global domination of the West and, in particular, challenging the hegemony of the United States (US). Commonly known as the Beijing-Moscow-Tehran axis, this alliance symbolizes the convergence of interests between these countries to strengthen economic, political and military collaboration. On the other hand, North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) defense agencies and military experts have recognized the disruptive potential of this union, especially in terms of its military capabilities and the implications it could have in conflict situations. The rapprochement and intensified cooperation between China, Russia and Iran has caused alarm in Washington and some concern among NATO allies, who recognize the need to pay attention to how this bloc could alter the international status quo and challenge Western strategic interests.